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In this issue we present to you research based tips for tutoring students in reading who have learning disabilities. Brought to you by www.ldonline.org, this update will give you hands on strategies that may be utilized by either parent or teacher.

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Promising Practice Research and Teaching Tips 

Tips for Tutors

(Adapted from a presentation by AEL's Soleil Gregg at the July 31-August 4 America Reads Conference in Nashville.)

Why good reading instruction is important:

• Up to 15% of children with reading problems drop out of school; only 2% finish college.
• Approximately 50% of teens and young adults with criminal records do not read well.
• About 50% of young people with substance abuse problems do not read well.
• About 90% to 95% of reading problems can be corrected with early intervention and appropriate instruction.

General advice for reading tutors:

• When it comes to reading, [directed] practice makes perfect.
• Never force a child to read orally in front of peers.
• Choose reading material on subjects of interest to the child.
• Speak distinctly and expressively when reading, clearly enunciating words and sounds. Inflect your voice in accordance with punctuation.
• Help make reading enjoyable. Children with reading difficulties usually do not like to read and do not get sufficient practice to become fluent.

Strategies for Tutoring Students with Disabilities

A cautionary note:

• Disabilities should be diagnosed and treated by professionals.
• Discuss any questions and concerns about tutoring a child with disabilities with a teacher or program coordinator.
• Strategies presented here are meant to enhance the tutoring process, not to replace or substitute for a teacher's specific recommendations.

Most common disabilities that affect learning to read:

Dyslexia. Dyslexia affects approximately 20% of school children. To read, children must translate letters on a page into the sounds of words (i.e., develop phonological awareness). In dyslexics an inefficient module in the brain is believed to interfere with letter-sound processing, so students exhibit difficulty decoding words. Research points to additional deficits in processing visual motion and rapid changes in sound. Children with dyslexia need direct instruction in letter - sound relationships using a curriculum that employs multisensory techniques.

Speech and Language Disorders. This general term refers to problems with communication, including reception (understanding), expression (speaking), and articulation (forming sounds) disorders. These disorders affect approximately 10% of the school population and account for 25% of children in special education. A child with a speech or language disorder may use baby talk past an appropriate age, may stutter, or may have trouble using or understanding words in the context of a conversation or assignment. Speech and language disorders often accompany learning disabilities such as dyslexia.

Processing Deficits. Processing disorders interfere with information taken in through the senses. The most common types affecting school tasks are visual, auditory, and motor deficits. Though considered learning disabilities, these deficits overlap with speech and language disorders and specific learning disabilities like dyslexia. Students with processing deficits may experience problems with auditory or visual sequencing and memory (e.g., reversing letters, losing the place while reading, and forgetting instructions).

ADHD. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by age-inappropriate levels of hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. It affects 3% to 5% of the population and often occurs with other conditions. Researchers believe that symptoms result from underlying impairment in systems used to regulate and control behavior. Children with ADHD may pay attention to the novel and stimulating but have trouble staying seated or keeping focused. Attention problems may not be apparent in one-on-one sessions; however, for more severe cases, a simple reward for appropriate behavior at the end of each session can help.

Developmental Disabilities (Mental Retardation). Mental retardation is diagnosed by an IQ below 70-75 and limitations in daily living. It has a variety of causes, including genetics, prenatal problems, low birth weight and premature birth, disease, and poverty or cultural deprivation. It affects approximately 3% of the population; of this group, 87% are mildly affected. Children with mild mental retardation may just seem a little slower than others in learning new information and skills.

Tutoring emergent and beginning readers with disabilities:

Most young children experiencing reading difficulty need to be directly taught letter-sound relationships (i.e., how the 26 letters of the alphabet represent the 44 sounds or phonemes that make up English words). When introducing new words or sounding out words in text, highlight each letter of the word as it is sounded or cover surrounding letters to focus on the one being sounded.

Choose books with rhyme, repetition, and a controlled vocabulary (a limited but expanding repertoire of phonetically based words (e.g., cat, sit, hot) and critical sight words (e.g., here, there, of, to).

For emergent readers, read and teach rhyming songs and poems (e.g., Mother Goose nursery rhymes such as "Mary Had a Little Lamb"). Teach the child to clap while singing or saying the syllables of the rhyme. If he or she does not already know the alphabet song, teach the child to sing it while pointing to the letters.

Reinforce knowledge of letter shapes by having the child write them, trace them, or place magnetic letters in order while saying the alphabet. Help the child to see the difference between similar letters such as "b" and "d" or "p" and "g."

Write each letter of a word on a separate card. Have the child place the cards in order as the word is sounded out. Show how to make new words (e.g., the letters p - a - t can be rearranged to make the word "tap" or the letter "p" can be removed to make the word "at").

Think multisensorily. Children with some disabilities may need to experience letters with the senses: auditory, kinesthetic/tactile, and visual. For example, in addition to looking at and saying the letter "A," the child can draw the letter in a pie pan full of sand, flour, or salt. The child can then "erase" the letter by gently shaking the pan or wiping with a hand, so it's ready for more writing.

As you read to a child, track syllables and words with a pointer finger. Teach the child to track words while reading alone.

Listening to books on tape while following along in text helps promote reading enjoyment and skill. Students of all ability levels can benefit from following along in their books (while using a pointer finger to track words) while the tutor reads aloud.

Conducting a lesson with a child experiencing reading difficulties:

Before reading, connect the subject of the story to a child's prior knowledge or experience (e.g., before reading The Little Engine That Could, ask if the child has ever seen or ridden a train). Let the child talk about the experience, then state that the story you're going to read is about a train that delivers toys to children. Building new information onto previously learned concepts increases interest, comprehension, and retention.

Stop at key points in the story to ask what the student thinks will happen next. Stop later to confirm predictions. Discuss why events did or did not turn out as predicted.

When a student stumbles on a word, help him sound it out by breaking it into individual letter sounds (e.g., kuh -ah - tuh for cat). Highlight the letters as they are sounded to help build letter-sound awareness. Have the child reread the sentence to focus on its meaning rather than on individual words.

Provide immediate corrective feedback if a child mispronounces or misstates a word.

After reading a story, have the child explain it in his own words.

Prepare packets containing a copy of the book, an audiotape of a word-for-word reading of the book, and a tape player for the child to use at home to practice reading skills. Parents or grandparents can be instructed in how to use the book and tape.